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Linguistic landscape is the "visibility and salience of languages on public and commercial signs in a given territory or region" (Landry and Bourhis 1997:23). Linguistic landscape has been described as being "somewhere at the junction of sociolinguistics, sociology, social psychology, geography, and media studies". It is a concept used in sociolinguistics as scholars study how languages are visually used in multilingual societies. For example, some public signs in Jerusalem are in Hebrew, English, and Arabic (Spolsky and Cooper 1991, Ben-Rafael, Shohamy, Amara, and Trumper-Hecht 2006). Studies of the linguistic landscape have been published from studies done around the world. The field of study is relatively recent; "the linguistic landscapes paradigm has evolved rapidly and while it has a number of key names associated with it, it currently has no clear orthodoxy or theoretical core" (Sebba 2010:73). An entire issue of the ''International Journal of Multilingualism'' (3.1 in 2006) was devoted to the subject. Also, the journal ''World Englishes'' published a themed issue of five papers as a "Symposium on World Englishes and Linguistic Landscapes: Five Perspectives" (2012, vol. 31.1). Similarly, an entire issue of the ''International Journal of the Sociology of Language'' (228 in 2014) was devoted to the subject, including looking at signs that show influences from one language on another language. There is now an academic journal devoted to this topic, titled ''Linguistic Landscape: An International Journal'', from John Benjamins. There is also a series of academic conferences on the study of linguistic landscape.〔(Linguistic landscape conference 2015 at Berkeley )〕 Because "the methodologies employed in the collection and categorisation of written signs is still controversial", basic research questions are still being discussed, such as: "do small, hand-made signs count as much as large, commercially made signs?". The original technical scope of "linguistic landscape" involved plural languages, and almost all writers use it in that sense, but Papen has applied the term to the way public writing is used in a monolingual way in a German city and Heyd has applied the term to the ways that English is written, and people's reactions to these ways. The languages used in public signs indicate what languages are locally relevant, or give evidence of what languages are becoming locally relevant (Kasanga 2012). In many multilingual countries, multilingual signs and packaging are taken for granted, especially as merchants try to attract as many customers as possible or people realize that they serve a multilingual community. In other places, it is a matter of law, as in Quebec, where signs cannot be in English only, but must include French (Bill 101, ''Charte de la langue française''). In Texas, some signs are required to be in English and Spanish, such as warning signs about consuming alcohol while pregnant. In some cases, the signs themselves are multilingual signs, reflecting an expected multilingual readership. In other cases, there are monolingual signs in different languages, written in relevant languages found within a multilingual community. Backhaus even points out that some signs are not meant to be understood so much as to appeal to readers via a more prestigious language (2007:58). Some signs are spelled to convey the aura of another language (sometimes genuinely spelled as in the other language, others times fictionally), but are still meant to be understood by monolinguals. For example, some signs in English are spelled in a way that conveys the aura of German or French, but are still meant to be understood by monolingual English speakers. The study of linguistic landscape also examines such patterns as which languages are used for which types of institutions (e.g. country club, hospital, ethnic grocery store), which languages are used for more expensive/cheaper items (new cars or used cars), or which languages are used for more expensive/cheaper services (e.g. pool cleaning or washing machine repair). Also, linguistic landscapes can be studied across an area, to see which neighborhoods have signs in which languages. Linguistic landscape can also be applied to the study of competing scripts for a single language. For example, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, some signs in Mongolia were erected in the traditional Mongolian script, not just Cyrillic (Grivelet 2001). Similarly, in some Cherokee speaking communities, street signs and other public signage is written with the Cherokee syllabary (Bender 2008). Also, license plates in Greek Cyprus have been printed with Greek or Roman letters in different eras.〔Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki. 2013. Which alphabet on car number-plates in Cyprus? ''Language Problems and Language Planning 37.3: pp. 249-270〕 The study of the linguistic landscape can also show evidence of the presence and roles of different languages through history.〔Jam Blommaert. 2013. ''Ethnography, superdiversity, and linguistic landscapes: Chronicles of complexity.'' Multilingual Matters.〕 〔Ramamoorthy, L. (2002) Linguistic landscaping and reminiscences of French legacy: The case of Pondicherry. In N.H. Itagy and S.K. Singh (eds) ''Linguistic Landscaping in India'' (pp. 118-131). Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages/Mahatma Gandhi International Hindi University.〕 Some early work on a specific form of linguistic landscape was done in cemeteries used by immigrant communities,〔Doris Francis, Georgina Neophytu, Leonie Kellaher. 2005. ''The Secret Cemetery.'' Oxford: Berg.〕 some languages being carved "long after the language ceased to be spoken" in the communities.〔p. 42. Kara VanDam. 2009. Dutch- American language shift: evidence from the grave. ''LACUS Forum XXXIV'' 33-42.〕 In addition to larger public signage, some who study linguistic landscapes are now including the study of other public objects with multilingual texts, such as banknotes in India which are labeled in over a dozen languages.〔Larissa Aronin and Muiris Ó Laoire. 2012. The material culture of multilingualism. In Durk Gorter, Heiko F. Marten and Luk Van Mensel, eds., ''Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape'', pp. 229-318. (Palgrave Studies in Minority Languages and Communities.) Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan.〕 ==Examples== File:1000 Rupee Indian Currency Note - Tanjai.jpg|Indian bank note with multiple languages File:Trisulam railway station nameboard.JPG|The three-language (Tamil, English and Hindi) name board at the Tirusulam railway station in South India. Almost all railway stations in India have signs in three or more languages (English, Hindi and the local language). File:Bilingual sign at Dallas Cathedral.JPG|Spanish-English sign at Cathedral Santuario de Guadalupe in Dallas, Texas; the congregation has both English and Spanish speakers. File:QuebecStoreSign.jpg|Bilingual sign in a Quebec supermarket with ''markedly predominant'' French text. File:Belarusian_Latin_Alphabet_in_Minsk.jpg|Monolingual biscriptal street sign in Belarusian in Minsk, Belarus. File:Cherokee Central Schools.jpg|English and Cherokee sign: Cherokee visually prominent but less functional. File:Hospital floor directory.JPG|English and Spanish hospital directory, English prominent, in USA. File:Louisiana.JPG|English and French sign in Louisiana, French written to indicate historical link, not so much to be understood File:Berlin United Methodist Church.JPG|Spanish church sign in Georgia, USA, addressed entirely to Spanish readers. File:Bilingual ad for services, mounted on pickup truck.JPG|Washing machine repairman advertising on his truck, in English and Spanish, English on top, Texas File:Bilingual label for disinfectant English-Spanish.jpg|Product originally labeled in English; bilingual warning base added for any hospital visitors & workers who are Spanish-dominant. File:Beregszasz city limit sign rovas script.JPG|Bilingual sign, in three scripts, near Hungary-Ukraine border. File:Fishing warning sign Israel.JPG|Sign in Israel written in two locally relevant languages, plus international language. File:בית קרסנטי - בת גלים (1).JPG|Sign in Roman script but Hebrew words, a hostel in Haifa, Israel catering to European gentiles File:Spanish for rent sign in Desoto Texas.JPG|This Spanish sign was advertising a mobile home for rent in a largely Hispanic neighborhood in Texas. The broader community is predominantly non-Spanish speaking. File:MetroBankDynastyPlazasign.JPG|Commercial signs in section of Houston, Texas with large Asian population. File:Spanish blood drive sign with some English.JPG|Predominantly Spanish sign in Texas church working to welcome Spanish speakers, near English version of same sign File:Spanish_language_billboard_in_Dallas.jpg|Spanish language billboard in Dallas, TX, but product itself labeled in English. File:Chinese restaurant sign monolingual.jpg|Chinese sign on restaurant in America, conveying Chinese aura but not propositional content. File:Iqualuit's Miss May, Miss June and Miss July.jpg|Trilingual, biscriptal sign in Nunavut, Canada, using Canadian Aboriginal Syllabic script File:Pappenheim Jüdischer Friedhof 012.JPG|Hebrew gravestone in Germany File:Templer Cemetery Jerusalem.JPG|German gravestone in Israel File:DurbanSign1989.jpg|Apartheid era trilingual sign in South Africa File:Gujarati sign on shop in America.png|Gujarati and English sign on shop in English-speaking town in America, a Hindu talisman in the Gujarati language File:Manila Oriental Market aisles 35-36 sign.JPG|Manila Oriental Market, grocery store in Daly, CA catering to many customers of Asian origin File:Library sign English-Spanish.JPG|A library sign in English with Spanish below, in Texas. The city has many Spanish speakers moving in, so the public library has added Spanish books and Spanish signs. File:Statue Mariano Datahan.JPG|Statue of Mariano Datahan, early promoter of the Eskayan language and script, labeled in Eskayan with its unique script File:Seattle - S Rainier Ave - Cao Dai Temple - CIMG4144.JPG|Vietnamese temple in Seattle, sign in three languages File:A Gurkha soldier's tombstone at Kranji War Cemetery, Singapore.jpg|Tombstone for Gurkha soldier who served in British army, in Gurkha and English File:MiKmaqStopSign.jpg|Mi'kmaq language stop sign in Elsipogtog First Nation, Canada, street names in English File:BuffaloBurmeseCommunityCenterSign.JPG|Sign on building for Burmese refugees in USA File:Sign_at_entrance_to_Temple.jpg|Warning sign in Jerusalem, Hebrew on top File:Signs in both Japanese and Portuguese in Toyota City, Japan.jpg|Signs in both Japanese and Portuguese in the Homi housing complex in the Homigaoka district of Toyota City, Japan File:Bilingual street sign in Fredricksburg Texas.png|In Fredericksburg, Texas founded by Germans, using German image for tourism. German part of the sign only for a German aura. File:Learn Danish in Germany, 2012, ubt.JPG|"Learn Danish" banner in Danish and German, in Flensburg, Germany where it is an officially recognised regional language. File:Tok Pisin Road Work Warning Sign.jpg|In Papua New Guinea, stop sign in English, more detailed warning in Tok pisin File:Avenida Sidónio Pais.JPG|Sign in Macau with street name in both Chinese and Portuguese File:NewOrleans200212 2110.jpg|Latin on altar and wall of cathedral in USA. Understood by few, but seen as holier by some. File:Spanish church sign & English warning sign.png|Sign specifically made for Spanish language church. Burglar alarm warning sign mass-produced, so English. File:Leshon ha ra.JPG|Sign in Jerusalem prohibiting slanderous speech 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Linguistic landscape」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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